Age and residual cholesterol efflux affect HDL cholesterol levels and coronary artery disease in ABCA1 heterozygotes

We and others have recently identified mutations in the ABCA1 gene as the underlying cause of Tangier disease (TD) and of a dominantly inherited form of familial hypoalphalipoproteinemia (FHA) associated with reduced cholesterol efflux. We have now identified 13 ABCA1 mutations in 11 families (five TD, six FHA) and have examined the phenotypes of 77 individuals heterozygous for mutations in the ABCA1 gene. ABCA1 heterozygotes have decreased HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) and increased triglycerides. Age is an important modifier of the phenotype in heterozygotes, with a higher proportion of heterozygotes aged 30–70 years having HDL-C greater than the fifth percentile for age and sex compared with carriers less than 30 years of age. Levels of cholesterol efflux are highly correlated with HDL-C levels, accounting for 82% of its variation. Each 8% change in ABCA1-mediated efflux is predicted to be associated with a 0.1 mmol/l change in HDL-C. ABCA1 heterozygotes display a greater than threefold increase in the frequency of coronary artery disease (CAD), with earlier onset than unaffected family members. CAD is more frequent in those heterozygotes with lower cholesterol efflux values. These data provide direct evidence that impairment of cholesterol efflux and consequently reverse cholesterol transport is associated with reduced plasma HDL-C levels and increased risk of CAD.

Low HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) levels are an important risk factor for coronary artery disease (CAD). Epidemiological studies have shown strong inverse relationships between HDL-C and CAD (1), and although often seen in association with other lipid abnormalities, isolated low HDL-C is an independent risk factor for CAD (2, 3).

Glomset first proposed that the primary antiatherogenic function of HDL might be related to its key role in the transport of cholesterol from peripheral cells to the liver (4). However, until recently, little has been understood about the initial step of reverse cholesterol transport, namely, the removal of cholesterol from peripheral cells. In addition, there has been no direct investigation of the relationship between efflux of cholesterol to plasma HDL-C levels and risk of CAD (5, 6).

Tangier disease (TD), originally described by Fredrickson et al. in 1961, is associated with a near absence of HDL cholesterol and apoAI, hepatosplenomegaly, neuropathy, and marked cholesterol ester deposition within tissues (7). Biochemically, TD is associated with decreased cellular cholesterol and phospholipid efflux (8, 9). We and several others have recently reported mutations in the ABCA1 (ABC1) gene as the underlying cause of TD (10–15). ABCA1 is a member of the large family of ATP binding cassette transporters, known to be involved in the energy-dependent transport of a variety of substrates (16). We have also shown that (17) familial hypoalphalipoproteinemia (FHA) with decreased cholesterol efflux (18) is allelic to TD (10) and due to heterozygosity for mutations in the ABCA1 gene.

The phenotype of heterozygosity for mutations in the ABCA1 gene has not been clearly defined. As many factors, both genetic and environmental, influence plasma HDL-C levels and contribute to low HDL-C values, unambiguous identification of heterozygotes for ABCA1 mutations has until now been impossible. Individuals from TD kindreds presumed to be heterozygous have shown a range of phenotypes, and much overlap with unaffected individuals has been seen (19–21), possibly reflecting the fact that some individuals had been misclassified. Indeed, the inability to uniquely identify heterozygous individuals created difficulty in mapping the gene for TD (15). Studies in obligate heterozygotes have also been limited to small numbers (22), often within a single family (19), and thus restricted in the ability to analyze the phenotypic expression with different mutations and over a range of ages.

We have now identified a cohort of 77 individuals in whom heterozygosity has been defined by mutation identification in the ABCA1 gene. For the first time, it is now possible to characterize the phenotype in mutation-defined heterozygotes and to compare this with a large number of unaffected family members, thus controlling for other genetic and environmental factors. Furthermore, variation in ABCA1 activity as defined by levels of cholesterol efflux can be correlated with plasma HDL-C and risk of CAD.

ABCA1 heterozygotes have decreased HDL cholesterol and an increased risk for CAD. Our cohort comprised 77 individuals from 11 families identified as heterozygous for mutations in the ABCA1 gene. A comparison of mean lipid levels in heterozygotes with mean levels in all available unaffected family members (n = 156) is presented in Table 1. As predicted, heterozygotes have an approximately 40–45% decrease in HDL-C and apoAI and a mild (∼10%) decrease in apoAII compared with unaffected family members. Mean triglycerides (TG) were increased by approximately 40% in heterozygotes compared with unaffected family members and were further increased in patients with TD. Unlike patients with TD, there is no significant decrease in either total cholesterol (TC) or LDL cholesterol in heterozygotes, and apoB levels were not different in heterozygotes from controls. Mean HDL-C levels in carriers of each of the mutations were similarly reduced by approximately 40–50% compared with unaffected family members (Table 2).

Table 1

Characterization of heterozygotes

Table 2

HDL-C by mutation

We further examined the heterozygote phenotype by calculating the percentage of individuals falling within a given range of age- and sex-specific percentiles (25, 26). Much variability in the heterozygote phenotype was evident. As shown in Figure 1, although a significantly higher percentage of heterozygotes had HDL-C less than the fifth percentile for age and sex compared with unaffected controls (65% vs. 5%; P < 0.0001), 5% of heterozygotes had HDL greater than the 20th percentile, with HDL-C ranging up to the 31st percentile for age and sex. Thus in some individuals, clearly the phenotype is less severe. A broad distribution of TG levels was also evident (Figure 1). A significantly lower percentage of heterozygous individuals had TG below the 20th percentile for age and sex (P = 0.03), and a significantly larger percentage had TG greater than 80th percentile (P = 0.005) compared with unaffected family members, but substantial overlap between the two distributions was seen.

Figure 1

The percent of heterozygotes or unaffected family members with HDL-C and TG within a given range of percentiles for age and sex, based on the Lipid Research Clinics criteria (25), are shown. A broad distribution of HDL-C levels was seen in the heterozygotes, extending up to the 31st percentile for age and sex. There is much overlap in the distribution of TG between heterozygotes and unaffected family members, although a larger portion of heterozygotes have TG greater than or equal to the 80th percentile for age and sex.

Another important question is whether individuals heterozygous for ABCA1 mutations are at an increased risk of developing CAD. Studies on obligate TD heterozygotes have reported conflicting findings (19, 22). In our large cohort, symptomatic vascular disease was over three times as frequent in the adult heterozygotes as in unaffected family members (Table 1). Interestingly, the presentation of vascular disease was generally more severe in the heterozygotes than in their unaffected family members (Table 3). Heterozygotes had myocardial infarctions (five, one fatal) and severe vascular disease requiring multiple interventions, whereas in unaffected individuals, CAD was manifest as angina in two cases and as a transient ischemic attack at the age of 80 in another. Furthermore, the mean age of onset was on average a decade earlier in heterozygotes compared with unaffected controls (Table 1).

Table 3

Coronary artery disease

Cholesterol efflux, HDL cholesterol levels and CAD. We next sought to directly assess the relationship between cholesterol efflux levels, HDL-C, and CAD. We have previously shown that individuals heterozygous for ABCA1 mutations have decreased cholesterol efflux (23); however, the extent to which variations in cholesterol efflux are directly related to HDL-C levels is unknown. Relative cholesterol efflux in individuals heterozygous for an ABCA1 mutation was plotted against the mean HDL-C levels observed in the carriers of that mutation, expressed as a percentage of the unaffected members within that family (Figure 2). Efflux measures were not available in heterozygotes of some mutations from TD families in which efflux has only been measured in the TD probands. Cholesterol efflux levels associated with each mutation strongly predict the corresponding HDL-C levels in our families, accounting for 82% of the variation in HDL-C (r²=0.82; P = 0.005). Furthermore, in one large family (FHA2), in which efflux has been measured in three independent heterozygotes, an r² value of 0.81 was obtained when individual plasma HDL-C levels were plotted against individual efflux measurements. Using the regression equation of mean HDL-C levels in the heterozygotes on the efflux level of the heterozygous carrier (P = 0.02), we can estimate the relationship between expected changes in ABCA1 efflux activity and HDL-C levels. From this, we would predict that each 8% change in efflux levels would be associated with a 0.1 mmol/l change in HDL-C.

Figure 2

Average HDL in heterozygotes for each mutation (expressed as a percentage of mean HDL in the unaffected members of that family) are plotted against the efflux levels measured in a heterozygous carrier of each mutation. Efflux levels are highly correlated with levels of HDL cholesterol and are associated with 82% of the variation in HDL-C.

Relative cholesterol efflux levels are also related to CAD within the family. Families with clearest evidence for premature CAD had individuals with the lowest cholesterol efflux (Table 2; Figure 2, boldface). These data suggest that the level of residual ABCA1 function is a critical determinant of both HDL-C levels and risk of CAD.

ABCA1 mutation type and location do not influence the severity of phenotype in heterozygous individuals. We have previously noted that the phenotypic presentation of our FHA heterozygotes was more severe than that of our TD heterozygotes (27), and we initially noted more deletions and premature truncations of the protein in our FHA families than in our TD families (10, 23). Thus, with our identification of several different ABCA1 mutations, and as residual ABCA1 activity is an important predictor of severity of the phenotype, we sought to examine whether the nature of the mutation influenced the phenotypic expression of mutations in the ABCA1 gene. Severe mutations were defined as deletions, those that caused premature truncation of the protein or disrupted natural splicing of the protein, and would be expected to result in a nonfunctional allele. Missense mutations, on the other hand, result in the change of only a single amino acid and may result in a protein product that still retains partial activity.

Lipid levels were compared in heterozygous carriers of severe and missense mutations. Although there was a trend toward decreased HDL-C levels in carriers of severe compared with missense mutations, this did not reach significance (0.78 ± 0.26 vs. 0.70 ± 0.23; P = 0.18). A range of HDL-C levels in individual missense and severe mutations was observed (Table 2). No significant differences in TG were evident between carriers of missense and severe mutations (1.77 ± 2.15 vs. 1.55 ± 1.01; P = 0.58). Interestingly, the M1091T missense mutation is the most severe mutation both by effects on efflux and HDL-C levels, with a more severe phenotype than even early truncations of the protein (e.g., R909X).

The site of mutation (e.g., NH₂-terminal or COOH-terminal) within the ABCA1 protein did not influence the phenotype (Figure 3). The presence of CAD is seen in carriers of mutations in different domains of the protein. Patients with mutations on both alleles manifest with splenomegaly alone or in association with CAD (TD1; data not shown). Thus, the phenotype appears to be mutation specific and most likely dependent on remaining ABCA1 function of the wild-type allele and residual function of the mutant allele, similar to what has been shown for mutations in ABCR, a close homologue of ABCA1 (28).

Figure 3

A schematic diagram of the ABCA1 protein, illustrating the location of mutations in the heterozygotes and the presence of CAD in carriers of that mutation. The number of heterozygotes aged 40 years or older that may be expected to have developed CAD is included. The number of unaffected family members greater than 40 years old is 69.

The phenotype of mutations in the ABCA1 gene is modified by age. One factor influencing phenotypic expression that became apparent in our families was age. This was first brought to our attention in two of the families initially investigated (23). In family FHA3, although heterozygous individuals in older generations all had HDL-C levels less than the fifth percentile for age and sex, those in the youngest generation had a much more variable phenotype, with HDL-C ranging up to the 20th percentile. In family FHA1, the same pattern was observed.

We compared the distribution of individuals across HDL-C percentile ranges in those less than 30 versus those from 30 to less than 70 years of age (Figure 4). A significantly larger percentage of individuals 30–70 years of age had HDL-C less than the fifth percentile than did those less than 30 years. Mean HDL-C decreases in heterozygotes greater than 30 years of age compared with those less than 30 years of age, whereas there is no significant change in unaffected controls (Table 4). Similar results are seen in males and females separately and are seen at both pre- and postmenopausal ages in women (Figure 5). TG increase with age in both heterozygotes and unaffected family members.

Figure 4

The percentage of individuals less than 30 years of age and from 30 to less than 70 years of age with HDL-C levels in a given percentile range are plotted. Younger individuals have a far broader distribution of HDL-C levels, clearly indicating that the impact of ABCA1 on HDL-C levels is influenced by age.

Figure 5

The mean HDL-C in heterozygous males and females (solid line) in 10-year age groups (plotted at the halfway point) are shown compared with the tenth percentile distribution in the Lipid Research Clinics population (dashed line) (25). Error bars represent the SD of each mean. The number of individuals in each group is shown under each data point. Beyond the age of 30 years, mean HDL-C levels in heterozygotes fall much lower than the tenth percentile distribution, whereas at less than 30 years of age, mean HDL-C levels in the heterozygotes more closely approximate the tenth percentile distribution.

Table 4

Mean HDL-C and TG by age in heterozygotes

Assessment of the influences of sex and BMI on the phenotypic expression of ABCA1 mutations. Females are known to have elevated HDL-C and decreased TG compared with males (26). Thus, we sought to address whether the phenotype of ABCA1 heterozygotes was influenced by sex. HDL-C is significantly lower than unaffected controls in both heterozygous males and females (0.70 ± 0.24 vs. 1.21 ± 0.29; P < 0.0001, and 0.76 ± 0.25 vs. 1.41 ± 0.38; P < 0.0001, respectively). This was reflected in decreased apoAI (0.92 ± 0.27 vs. 1.36 ± 0.22; P < 0.0001, and 0.92 ± 0.36 vs. 1.49 ± 0.28; P < 0.0001 in males and females, respectively) and a trend toward a mild decrease in apoAII in both males and females compared with unaffected family members (0.35 ± 0.08 vs. 0.40 ± 0.09; P = 0.08, and 0.35 ± 0.09 vs. 0.39 ± 0.07; P = 0.06, respectively). TG are higher in both male (2.07 ± 2.16 vs. 1.30 ± 1.30; P = 0.02) and female (1.34 ± 0.86 vs. 1.09 ± 0.63; P = 0.08) heterozygotes compared with unaffected family members. Interestingly, the difference in HDL-C between males and females was reduced in heterozygotes compared with controls (P = 0.11), whereas the difference in TG was increased compared with controls (P = 0.13).

Another factor known to influence HDL-C and TG levels is BMI (29). The entire cohort was divided into tertiles of BMI, and the mean HDL-C and TG levels of heterozygotes and unaffected individuals by BMI tertile are shown in Figure 6. BMI had a significant effect on both HDL-C and TG in both heterozygotes and controls (P = 0.0001). The effect of BMI on HDL-C and TG was more severe in heterozygotes than in controls, being evident at lower BMIs (mid-tertile) in heterozygotes. A raised BMI was more obviously associated with changes in HDL-C and TG in heterozygotes compared with controls. However, neither effect reached statistical significance. HDL-C was reduced in heterozygotes compared with controls in all BMI tertiles (P < 0.0001 in each tertile). Although TG were increased in all BMI tertiles in heterozygotes compared with unaffected family members, this difference was only significant in the middle BMI tertile (P = 0.009).

Figure 6

The mean HDL-C and TG levels in heterozygotes and unaffected family members falling within each tertile of BMI are shown. The tertiles of BMI correspond to the following values: 1: BMI < 21.4; 2: 21.4 ≤ BMI ≤ 25.1; 3: BMI > 25.1.

The reverse transport of cholesterol from peripheral cells to sites of catabolism, first described by Glomset and Norum (4), has been hypothesized to be the primary mechanism whereby HDL-C is antiatherogenic. However, there has been little direct evidence that changes in this pathway are associated with changes in HDL-C levels and susceptibility to CAD (30). Specifically, there has been no direct evidence linking efflux of cholesterol from peripheral cells, the initial step of the reverse cholesterol transport pathway, to CAD.

With the identification of the ABCA1 protein as a key initiator of the efflux pathway, it has now been possible to relate directly cholesterol efflux, HDL-C levels, and CAD. For the first time, we have been able to describe the phenotype in heterozygotes for different mutations in the ABCA1 gene in a large cohort in which diagnosis has been made by mutation identification. Furthermore, we have been able to compare this with a cohort of unaffected family members, enabling us to control, at least in part, for other genetic and environmental influences.

Here, we have shown that ABCA1 heterozygotes have an approximate 50% decrease in HDL-C and apoAI and a mild but significant decrease in apoAII. In addition, heterozygotes have increased TG, but in contrast to patients with TD, have no significant change in total or LDL cholesterol. The changes in HDL-C, apoAI, and TG were gene-dose dependent, suggesting they are directly related to ABCA1 function. Furthermore, heterozygotes have a more than threefold increased risk of developing CAD and a younger average age of onset compared with unaffected individuals. Further, those heterozygotes with most severe deficiency in efflux had a higher frequency of CAD. It should be noted, however, that the absolute number of CAD cases is small and two of the 62 adult heterozygotes were identified on the basis of their CAD. Thus additional studies examining the extent of CAD in a randomly ascertained heterozygote population will be important to confirm these findings.

Interestingly, the severity of the phenotype observed in the heterozygotes appeared to be mutation dependent, but there was no obvious relationship between the site of mutation and the phenotype. There was a trend toward lower HDL-C in carriers of the severe mutations, causing truncations or null alleles, compared with carriers of missense mutations. One notable exception is the M1091T missense mutation, which had the most severe phenotype, with marked reductions in HDL-C and efflux in affected family members, suggesting that this mutation may act in a dominant-negative fashion, downregulating the function of the wild-type allele. Another interesting finding is the small cluster of mutations at the very COOH-terminal region of the protein, which suggests that this region must be critical to ABCA1 function.

The severe HDL deficiency in ABCA1 heterozygotes suggests that residual cholesterol efflux is the major determinant of HDL-C levels. While this manuscript was being prepared for submission, a report has appeared, correlating efflux with HDL-C levels in a small number (n = 9) of heterozygotes from one family (31). Our results extend these findings to multiple populations, directly linking residual ABCA1 efflux activity to HDL-C levels and now also to the risk of CAD. From the regression equation of mean HDL-C on efflux, we predict that each 8% increase in relative efflux is associated with a 0.1 mmol/l increase in HDL-C levels. Alternatively, a 50% increase in ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux would be predicted to result in a 30% increase in HDL-C in a normal 40-year-old male. Although these numbers may not directly extrapolate to what is observed in a general population in which other genetic and environmental factors have not been controlled for, these data nonetheless suggest that relatively small changes in ABCA1 function may have a significant impact on plasma HDL-C levels. Furthermore, the data presented here suggest that variations in efflux due to variations in ABCA1 function directly reflect not only plasma HDL-C levels but also CAD susceptibility, thus providing direct validation of the reverse cholesterol transport hypothesis and validation of ABCA1 as a therapeutic target to raise HDL-C and protect against atherosclerosis.

We have also shown that the phenotype in ABCA1 heterozygotes is age modulated. Beginning at 20 years of age, there is a small but definite increase in HDL-C with advancing age that is obviously absent in the heterozygotes. One explanation for this finding is that there is normally an age-related increase in ABCA1 function, which is not seen in heterozygotes, perhaps because the remaining functioning allele has already been maximally upregulated secondary to an increase in intracellular cholesterol. This would exaggerate the phenotype in older age groups. There is some evidence for an age-modulated increase of the ABC transporters (32). Further evidence of a potential age-related increase in ABCA1 function comes from the observation that the percentage of apoAI found in the preβ₁ subfraction of HDL, the predominant cholesterol acceptors, decreases with age (33), suggesting increased formation of mature α-migrating HDL particles with age. Clearly, additional experiments directly assessing the impact of age on ABCA1 function are needed to address this.

Here we have shown that heterozygotes for ABCA1 mutations have age-modulated decreases in HDL-C with significantly increased risk for CAD. Furthermore, this phenotype was highly correlated with efflux, clearly demonstrating that impairment of reverse cholesterol transport is associated with decreased plasma HDL-C and increased atherogenesis. In conclusion, our data suggest that therapies designed specifically to increase ABCA1 function should be associated with increased plasma HDL-C and protection against atherosclerosis.

This work was supported in part by the Medical Research Council of Canada (S.M. Clee, J. Genest, Jr. [MT 15042], and M.R. Hayden), the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada (J. Genest, Jr., and M.R. Hayden), the Canadian Networks of Centres of Excellence (NCE Genetics; M.R. Hayden), and Xenon Genetics Inc. (H.O.F. Molhuizen). K.Y. Zwarts and R. Roelants are supported by grants from the Netherlands Heart Foundation. K.Y. Zwarts is supported by Saal van Zwanenbergstichting. J. Genest, Jr., is supported by a Chercheur National salary award from the Fonds de la recherche en santé de Québec. M.R. Hayden is an Established Investigator of the British Columbia Children’s Hospital and an MRC-PMAC Senior Scientist.

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