Bestrophin-2 mediates bicarbonate transport by goblet cells in mouse colon

Anion transport by the colonic mucosa maintains the hydration and pH of the colonic lumen, and its disruption causes a variety of diarrheal diseases. Cholinergic agonists raise cytosolic Ca²⁺ levels and stimulate anion secretion, but the mechanisms underlying this effect remain unclear. Cholinergic stimulation of anion secretion may occur via activation of Ca²⁺-activated Cl^– channels (CaCCs) or an increase in the Cl^– driving force through CFTR after activation of Ca²⁺-dependent K⁺ channels. Here we investigated the role of a candidate CaCC protein, bestrophin-2 (Best2), using Best2^–/– mice. Cholinergic stimulation of anion current was greatly reduced in Best2^–/– mice, consistent with our proposed role for Best2 as a CaCC. However, immunostaining revealed Best2 localized to the basolateral membrane of mucin-secreting colonic goblet cells, not the apical membrane of Cl^–-secreting enterocytes. In addition, in the absence of HCO₃^–, cholinergic-activated current was identical in control and Best2^–/– tissue preparations, which suggests that most of the Best2 current was carried by HCO₃^–. These data delineate an alternative model of cholinergic regulation of colonic anion secretion in which goblet cells play a critical role in HCO₃^– homeostasis. We therefore propose that Best2 is a HCO₃^– channel that works in concert with a Cl:HCO₃^– exchanger in the apical membrane to affect transcellular HCO₃^– transport. Furthermore, previous models implicating CFTR in cholinergic Cl^– secretion may be explained by substantial downregulation of Best2 in Cftr^–/– mice.

Anion channels and transporters in the gastrointestinal epithelium play essential roles in fluid secretion and absorption and participate in regulating the pH and ionic composition of the gut luminal contents. The classical view of ion transport in distal colon (see Discussion) holds that there is net absorption of Na⁺, Cl^–, short-chain fatty acids, and H₂O and net secretion of K⁺, HCO₃^–, and mucus (1–3). Secretion and absorption are highly specialized topographically: in general, secretion occurs in the crypt, and absorption occurs at the luminal brush border. Secretion is driven by transepithelial Cl^– transport that occurs by active basolateral uptake of Cl^– by the Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^– cotransporter NKCC1 and subsequent passive efflux via apical (luminal) Cl^– channels (3). Cl^– transport is accompanied osmotically by H₂O and electrically by K⁺ and Na⁺. Na⁺ and Cl^– are then reabsorbed at the brush border surface by coupled Na⁺-H⁺ exchange (i.e., by NHE3) and Cl^–-HCO₃^– exchange (by SLC26A3) (4). Na⁺ is also reabsorbed by the epithelial Na⁺ channel (ENaC).

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), whose overactivation by bacterial enterotoxins (e.g., cholera toxin) causes secretory diarrhea, and whose dysfunction in certain presentations of cystic fibrosis leads to intestinal blockage, plays a major role in colonic Cl^– secretion (5). In addition, anions are secreted simultaneously with mucin in response to agonists that elevate intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i; e.g., refs. 6–8). However, the mechanisms underlying the Ca²⁺-stimulated anion current are unclear (3). One school of thought favors a role for Ca²⁺-activated Cl^– channels (6, 9), whereas another believes that Ca²⁺ activates K_Ca3.1 K⁺ channels that hyperpolarize the membrane and increase the driving force for anion secretion through CFTR (10–13).

The molecular identity of CaCCs has been elusive, but candidates include members of the bestrophin, CLCA, and TMEM16 families as well as ClC-3 (14–16). Among these candidates, bestrophins have received considerable attention for their roles in a variety of epithelia, including retinal pigment epithelium, airway, and gastrointestinal tract (14, 17). Best1 is expressed in proximal colon in mice and in human colonic epithelial cell lines (7, 8). Recently, we generated a mouse in which the first exons of the Best2 gene were replaced with LacZ and noted that murine Best2 was strongly expressed in colon (18). In the present study, our initial goal was to test the hypothesis that Best2 is an apical CaCC that mediates Cl^– secretion. We expected that Best2 would be expressed on the apical surface of enterocytes in the colonic crypt, but were surprised to find that Best2 was expressed in the basolateral membrane of mucin-secreting goblet cells. We also found that Best2 was unlikely to participate in colonic Ca²⁺-activated Cl^– secretion, but participated in colonic HCO₃^– secretion concomitant with mucin secretion. We therefore propose that HCO₃^– secretion plays a role in mucin expulsion from the crypt into the colonic lumen. Our findings also showed that colonic Ca²⁺-activated anion secretion was carried largely by HCO₃^–, and not by Cl^–, as previously supposed.

Lac-Z under control of the Best2 promoter is expressed in a proximal-distal gradient in the colon

Best2^–/– mice were constructed with the Lac-Z gene replacing exon 2 and parts of exons 1 and 3 of the Best2 gene, so that the Lac-Z reporter (with a nuclear localization signal) was under control of the Best2 promoter (18). The expression of the mouse Best2 gene was evaluated by examining the expression of Lac-Z by X-gal staining. In a 2-month-old mouse, there was a gradient of expression from the cecum, which did not stain at all, to the rectum (Figure 1A). In younger mice, the level of expression was lower, and the staining of the distal colon was reduced compared with the older mice (Figure 1B). Staining localized in the nuclei of cells throughout the crypts (Figure 1C). The Best2^–/– mouse was a true Best2 null, as shown by Western blot: extracts from WT colon or from mouse Best2-transfected HEK cells exhibit a 58-kDa band expected for Best2, whereas extracts from Best2^–/– mice and untransfected HEK cells did not have the Best2 band (Figure 1D).

Figure 1

Best2 reporter expression in Best2^–/– mouse colon. (A and B) Lac-Z staining of whole-mount preparations from 2-month-old (A) and 3-week-old (B) Best2^–/– mice. The colon was dissected from anus to cecum, opened by a longitudinal incision, fixed with 4% buffered paraformaldehyde, and stained with X-gal. Positive blue staining occurred in a gradient from cecum to most distal colon. Scale bars: 1 cm. (C) Frozen section of distal colon of 2-month-old mouse stained for Lac-Z. Lac-Z–positive nuclei were visible throughout the crypts. Scale bar: 100 μm. (D) Western blot of Best2 expression. HEK, untransfected HEK cells (negative control); HEK-Best2, HEK cells transfected with Best2 (positive control); WT and KO colon, an approximatey 1-cm piece of colonic mucosa approximately 1 cm from the anus of a WT and a Best2^–/– mouse, respectively. Blot was stained with antibody to Best2 (58 kDa) and antibody to GAPDH as a loading control (37 kDa).

Best2 is expressed in a subset of colonic cells in mice and humans

To determine which cell types express Best2 in WT mice, the knockout-verified antibody was used to immunostain sections from a region of colon midway between anus and cecum. A subset of cells exhibited intense Best2 staining on the basal and lateral membranes (Figure 2A). These cells were located at all levels of the crypt as well as on the luminal brush border surface. At higher magnification (Figure 2, B and C), Best2-positive cells exhibited morphology typical of goblet cells (19). The Best2-positive cells at the tops of the crypts generally had a goblet-like appearance, with an expanded apical end presumably filled with mucin and a cell body that narrows as it approaches the basal lamina. Best2-positive cells deeper in the crypts had a more extensive basal surface and tapered apically. The Best2-positive cells did not exhibit apical actin staining with phalloidin (Figure 2, C and D) or with CFTR antibody (Figure 2E), whereas the apical membranes of the Best2-negative enterocytes, both in the crypt and at brush border of the luminal surface, stained intensely with phalloidin and with CFTR antibody. The relative absence of phalloidin staining of the apical membrane is consistent with the fact that goblet cells have fewer actin-containing microvilli than do enterocytes (20).

Figure 2

Localization of Best2 in mouse and human colon. Frozen sections of paraformaldehyde-fixed mouse (A–F) and human (G and H) distal colon were stained with antibody against Best2 (green) and counterstained with phalloidin to stain actin (A–D, G, and H; red) or antibody against CFTR (E; red). (A) Low-power longitudinal section showing Best2-positive cells scattered throughout the crypt. Asterisks denote the base of the lumen of several crypts. (B–D) Higher-magnification view of crypts (asterisks denote lumen) showing Best2 localization in the basolateral membrane of a subset of cells. (E) CFTR and Best2 antibodies stained different cell types in the crypt. The apical membrane of enterocytes in the crypt (asterisks denote lumen) stained with CFTR antibody, whereas Best2 antibody stained the basolateral membrane of CFTR-negative cells. (F) Specificity of Best2 antibody staining was demonstrated by its absence in Best2^–/– mice. (G and H) Low- and high-power views of BEST2-positive cells in human colon. Arrow indicates brush border membrane. BEST2 staining was evident on basolateral membranes and also in intracellular organelles. Scale bars: 50 μm (A and F); 20 μm (B); 10 μm (C, E, and G); 5 μm (D and H).

There are 3 bestrophin paralogs in mice and 4 in humans (Best1–Best3 and BEST1–BEST4, respectively; ref. 14). BEST2 and Best2 are 90% identical, and thus would be expected to function similarly. Our previous studies show that Best2 and BEST2 produce similar whole-cell Ca²⁺-activated anion currents (21). We immunostained human colon sections with specific anti-BEST2 antibodies and found that, like Best2, BEST2 was localized in the basolateral plasma membrane of a subset of colonic cells (Figure 2, G and H). In human tissue, there was a considerable amount of intracellular staining at the basal end of the cells; this staining was punctate and appeared to be localized in vesicles (Figure 2H). In mouse colon, there was similar punctate intracellular staining in some cells (Figure 2D), but less than that observed in humans.

Best2-positive cells are goblet cells

To verify that the Best2-positive cells are goblet cells, we costained sections with antibodies against Best2 and the goblet cell mucin Muc-2. Muc-2 antibody intensely stained the apical portion of cells that were positive for Best2 (Figure 3A). The identity of these cells as goblet cells was confirmed using lectin staining. During biogenesis, mucins are heavily O-glycosylated with N-acetylgalactosamine and galactosyl(β-1,3)N-acetylgalactosamine at serine- and threonine-rich tandem repeat domains. These core sugars become heavily sialylated in mature mucin, which can be stained with Sambucus nigra agglutinin (SNA) and Maackia amurensis lectin–II (MAL-II), which recognize sialic acid. The apical region of Best2-positive cells stained with both SNA and MAL-II (Figure 3, B and C), confirming the identity of these cells as goblet cells.

Figure 3

Best2 is expressed in goblet cells. (A–C) Superimposed confocal images of colon section stained with Best2 (green) and Muc-2 (A; red), SNA (B; red), and MAL-II (C; red). (D–G) Immunoelectron microscopic localization of Best2 in goblet cells of mouse colon. (D and E) Low-magnification views of goblet cells in WT (D) and Best2^–/– (E) colon. (F and G) WT colon. Best2 immunogold particles were localized along basolateral plasma membrane (arrows) and rough endoplasmic reticulum (arrowheads) of goblet cells. mu, mucin. Scale bars: 10 μm (A and C); 20 μm (B); 5 μm (D and E); 0.5 μm (F and G).

Additional evidence that Best2 is expressed in the plasma membrane of goblet cells was provided by immunoelectron microscopy of goblet cells (Figure 3, D and E). There was no immunostaining in Best2^–/– mice (data not shown), whereas in WT mice, immunogold particles were abundant on basal and lateral plasma membranes and in endoplasmic reticulum (Figure 3, F and G).

Best2 mediates a Ca²⁺-activated and HCO₃^–-dependent current in colonic epithelium

The finding that Best2 was localized in the basolateral membrane of goblet cells was surprising, because we expected that Best2 was a CaCC located in the apical membrane of enterocytes involved in Ca²⁺-stimulated Cl^– secretion. To investigate the role of Best2 in colonic ion transport, we performed short-circuit current (I_sc) analysis on pieces of distal colonic mucosa stripped of smooth muscle mounted in Ussing chambers. Transepithelial currents were recorded with the transepithelial voltage clamped to 0 mV. CFTR-mediated currents were activated by elevation of cAMP by forskolin application to the apical (luminal) side, and Ca²⁺-activated currents were activated by carbachol (CCh) application to activate G_q-coupled muscarinic AChRs on the basal (serosal) side.

Reduced CCh-activated I_sc in Best2^–/– mice. After equilibration of the mucosa, but before application of drugs, the baseline I_SC recorded in normal Krebs solution was the same in WT (9.8 ± 0.9 μA•cm², n = 19) and Best2^–/– (12.0 ± 1.3 μA•cm², n = 13) mucosa. Amplitudes of forskolin-activated ΔI_SC were also the same in WT and Best2^–/– mice (40.6 ± 4.0 and 45.1 ± 7.1 μA•cm², respectively; Figure 4, A and C), whereas the CCh-activated currents were significantly smaller in Best2^–/– compared with WT mice (26.1 ± 0.7 versus 49.4 ± 4.5 μA•cm²; Figure 4, B and C). The finding that forskolin-activated currents were not affected in the Best2^–/– mouse is consistent with our observation that CFTR immunostaining was the same in WT and Best2^–/– mice (data not shown) and showed that CFTR functions normally in Best2^–/– mice. The decrease in CCh-activated current in the Best2^–/– mouse colon is consistent with Best2 playing a role in this current.

Figure 4

I_sc in WT and Best2^–/– distal colonic mucosa. Upward currents represent anion movement from serosa to lumen. (A and B) Representative I_sc in response to 10 μM forskolin (A) and 1 mM CCh (B) in WT and Best2^–/– mice. (C) Peak I_sc amplitudes to forskolin or CCh in WT and Best2^–/– mice (n = 6–10). *P < 0.05 versus WT, Student’s t test. (D–I) I_sc mediated by Cl^– and HCO₃^–. Solutions contained 5 mM Ba²⁺ and 0.1 mM amiloride. (D) Effect of HCO₃^– removal on CCh-stimulated current in WT mucosa. In normal Krebs solution, CCh induced a rapid peak followed by plateau. HCO₃^– removal inhibited the plateau. (E) Average I_sc in WT and Best2^–/– mice. CCh was added at 2 minutes. (F and G) CCh-stimulated current in WT (F) and Best2^–/– (G) mucosa in normal Krebs and HCO₃^–-free solutions. (H) Replot of data in F and G comparing Cl^– currents in HCO₃^–-free Krebs in WT and Best2^–/– mice. (I) Comparison of Cl^– and HCO₃^– currents stimulated by CCh in WT and Best2^–/– mucosa. Total, current in normal Krebs; Cl, Cl^– current in HCO₃^–-free solution; HCO₃(P), amplitude of plateau current 8 minutes after CCh application in normal Krebs; HCO₃(D), difference between currents at peak (about 1–2 minutes after CCh application) in normal Krebs and in HCO₃^–-free solution. n = 10 per data point.

CCh-activated current is composed of multiple components. Our previous studies have shown that Best2 has high permeability to HCO₃^– (21). For this reason, we investigated whether the CCh-activated current in the colon was carried by HCO₃^–. HCO₃^– was removed from the serosal Krebs solution, and pH and ionic strength was maintained by addition of Na-HEPES and Na-gluconate. As shown in Figure 4D, the recording was begun in HCO₃^–-containing solution that also contained Ba²⁺ and amiloride to block other cation channels. CCh stimulated a current that had a transient peak lasting approximately 1 minute and a prolonged plateau that typically lasted more than 15 minutes. When HCO₃^– was removed, the plateau current was completely abolished. Restoring HCO₃^– to the basal chamber restored the current. These results suggest that CCh stimulates 2 currents, a transient Cl^– current and a plateau HCO₃^– current.

The HCO₃^– component is mediated by Best2. To test this hypothesis more rigorously and to determine whether the CCh-activated currents were mediated by Best2, we examined the effect of HCO₃^– removal on preparations in which basolateral K⁺ channels were blocked by 5 mM Ba²⁺ and apical ENaC was blocked with amiloride. As above, under these conditions, CCh activated a current that rose to a peak before decaying to a steady plateau (Figure 4E). The CCh-activated current was smaller in Best2^–/– than in WT mucosa (Figure 4E). HCO₃^– removal greatly reduced the CCh-activated current in WT mucosa (Figure 4F). The greatest effect of HCO₃^– removal was seen on the plateau, with a smaller effect on the initial upstroke, which suggests that the plateau current was carried by HCO₃^– and that the initial component was carried by other ions, most likely Cl^–. Conversely, in Best2^–/– mucosa, HCO₃^– removal had a very small, statistically insignificant effect on the CCh-activated current (Figure 4G). These data support the conclusion that a component of the CCh-activated current is carried by HCO₃^– through Best2 channels. This conclusion is further supported by the observation that the CCh-activated currents recorded in the absence of HCO ₃^– were identical in WT and Best2^–/– mucosa (Figure 4H).

The amplitudes of the Cl^– and HCO₃^– currents are quantified in Figure 4I. Cl^– current was defined as the current in HCO₃^–-free solution with Ba²⁺ and amiloride. The HCO₃^– current was defined in 2 different ways. (a) The amplitude of the current in HCO₃^–-containing Krebs solution at 10 minutes after CCh addition (i.e., the plateau) was carried largely by HCO₃^– because the current in HCO₃^–-free solution was transient and returned to baseline within 10 minutes of CCh application. (b) The difference between the amplitudes of the peak currents (approximately 3 minutes) in normal Krebs (carried by both Cl^– and HCO₃^–) and in HCO₃^–-free solution (carried largely by Cl^–) should represent the HCO₃^– current. The HCO₃^– current amplitude determined by these 2 methods agreed surprisingly well and showed that the HCO₃^– current in Best2^–/– mucosa was only 33% as large as WT.

The HCO₃^– current is carried mainly by Best2

Although Ca²⁺ clearly activates anion secretion in colon, there is some question as to whether this is mediated by CaCCs or by CFTR. It has been proposed that CFTR channels are opened by elevation of cAMP produced by prostaglandins that are synthesized in response to tissue dissection and manipulation. Under these conditions of basal CFTR activation, Ca²⁺ may stimulate Cl^– flux through these open CFTR channels by activating Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channels, hyperpolarizing the membrane, and increasing the driving force for Cl^– secretion (see Discussion). To determine whether the Ca²⁺-stimulated HCO₃^– current requires CFTR, we performed I_sc analysis on colons from Cftr^–/– mice (homozygous Cftr^tm1Unc). In Cftr^–/– colons, both the total CCh-stimulated current and the HCO₃^–-dependent component were significantly smaller than in WT colons (Figure 5A). These results are consistent with the suggestion that CFTR may be necessary for the CCh-stimulated current. However, we wondered whether the apparent dependence of the CCh-stimulated currents on CFTR could be explained by downregulation of Best2 in the Cftr^–/– mice. To test this idea, Western blots were performed on samples of the same colons studied in the I_sc experiments (Figure 5B). Of the samples from Cftr^–/– mice, 2 gave little or no Best2 signal, whereas the other 2 samples gave weaker signals compared with the control mice. Immunofluorescence microscopy confirmed that the expression of Best2 was altered in Cftr^–/– mice. In Cftr^–/– mice, Best2 staining was weaker when viewed at identical settings and gains. However, more importantly, unlike WT colon, in which Best2 staining was intensely localized in the basolateral plasma membrane (Figure 5, C and D), in Cftr^–/– mice, Best2 staining was not sharply localized to the plasma membrane (Figure 5, E–H). In Cftr^–/– mice, Best2 staining was weakly and diffusely distributed in the cytoplasm (compare asterisks in Figure 5, D, F, and H). In addition, in Cftr^–/– mice, there was a considerable amount of Best2 accumulated in what appeared to be aggregates in the interstitium between crypts and the smooth muscle layer (arrowheads, Figure 5, E–G). These displaced accumulations of Best2 were never seen in WT tissue. These results suggest that the difference between WT and Cftr^–/– mice can be explained by an alteration in Best2 expression in the Cftr^–/– mice. These results raise the possibility that CFTR itself may not be required for Ca²⁺-stimulated Cl^– secretion.

Figure 5

Best2 expression in colon from Cftr^–/– mice. (A) I_sc from Cftr^–/– and WT mice, recorded as in Figure 4. Shown are results with normal Krebs and HCO₃^–-free solutions as well as the difference between them. n = 5 mucosal samples from 2 WT mice; n = 9 mucosal samples from 4 Cftr^–/– mice. P < 0.01, all Cftr^–/– versus all respective WT values. (B) Western blot of Best2 expression in WT (WT1 and WT2) and Cftr^–/– (CF1–CF4) colon samples. Samples were the same ones used for I_sc measurements in A. Blots were stained with Best2 (58 kDa) and GAPDH (37 kDa) antibodies. (C–H) Immunofluorescence of WT (C and D) and Cftr^–/– (E–H) colon samples. Samples are adjacent tissue from the same colons used for I_sc measurements in A. Arrowheads in E and F indicate interstitial accumulation of Best2 staining; asterisks in D, F, and H are shown for comparison of Best2 staining in the cytoplasm for comparison. Scale bars: 20 μm (C, E, and G); 10 μm (D, F, and H).

We therefore reexamined other evidence supporting the idea that Ca²⁺ stimulates Cl^– secretion through CFTR. Evidence that the Ca²⁺-activated Cl^– current is carried by CFTR has been supported by the observation that the response to CCh is blocked when prostaglandin synthesis is inhibited by indomethacin (10, 11). Prostaglandins generated during tissue manipulation are believed to be responsible for a basal level of CFTR activation, but we considered an alternative possibility: namely, that indomethacin may directly block currents carried by Best2. In HEK-293 cells expressing Best2, we found that indomethacin at concentrations typically used by others in Ussing chamber experiments (10 μM) blocked Best2 currents by approximately 80% (Figure 6, B and E). We also measured the effect of indomethacin on currents generated by another candidate CaCC channel, anoctamin 1 (Ano1; see below). Indomethacin did not block Ano1 currents at the same concentration (Figure 6, D and E).

Figure 6

Pharmacology of Best2 and Ano1 expressed in HEK293 cells. (A–D) Representative current-voltage curves of Best2 (A and B) and Ano1 (C and D) currents before application (control), during extracellular application of 10 μM clotrimazole (A and C) or indomethacin (B and D), and after 2-minute washout. (E) Percent inhibition of Best2 and Ano1 currents at +100 mV by 10 μM indomethacin or clotrimazole. Currents were activated by approximately 0.6 μM [Ca²⁺]_i in the pipette solution. Data shown are typical of 5 experiments.

There is considerable evidence that CCh activates Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channels (e.g., K_Ca3.1, SK4, and IK1) reported to be necessary for CCh-stimulated Cl^– secretion (e.g., ref. 12). Activation of these channels could result in increased Cl^– efflux through CFTR (if CFTR channels were open). One line of evidence suggesting that K_Ca3.1 channels are necessary for Ca²⁺-activated Cl^– secretion is the observation that clotrimazole, a blocker of K_Ca3.1 channels, blocks the CCh-stimulated Cl^– current (12). We found that clotrimazole also blocked Best2 channels by approximately 80% and Ano1 channels expressed in HEK-293 cells by 70% (Figure 6, A and C). The block of Best2 channels is more slowly reversible than the block of Ano1 channels. Taken together, these data show that CFTR is unlikely to contribute significantly to the CCh-stimulated HCO₃^– current in mouse colon.

Ca²⁺-activated anion channels in isolated colonocytes

CCh activates a fast Cl^– current in addition to the slow HCO₃^– current carried by Best2. To gain additional insight into the channels that carry the Cl^– component, we performed whole-cell patch clamp recording on freshly isolated cells isolated from distal colon. These isolated colonocytes are expected to be a mixture of goblet cells and enterocytes. Cells patch-clamped with less than 20 nM free [Ca²⁺]_i in the pipette had very small currents (Figure 7, A and D), but large Cl^– currents were recorded with approximately 1 μM free [Ca²⁺]_i (Figure 7, B–D). We studied a total of 25 WT cells and 30 Best2^–/– cells with high [Ca²⁺]_i solution, and observed 2 different current waveforms in different cells. One linear and time-independent waveform (Figure 7C) was observed in 36% of WT cells and 43% of Best2^–/– cells, although the current was much smaller in Best2^–/– cells. The percentage of cells with this current waveform roughly corresponded to the proportion of goblet cells existing in this region of the colon (e.g., Figure 2A). We believe that the cells with linear currents are goblet cells, because the linear current resembled that induced by Best2 expressed in HEK cells (Figure 7, compare C and H), and its amplitude was reduced 60% in Best2^–/– cells (Figure 7F). The presence of a small linear current in the knockouts may be explained by an uncompensated leak current in some cells. The other waveform resembled a classical outwardly rectifying, time-dependent CaCC current (Figure 7B). The amplitudes of the outwardly rectifying currents were statistically the same in WT and Best2^–/– mice (Figure 7E). The outwardly rectifying current was most likely mediated by the newly discovered Ano1 (TMEM16A) channel (22–24), because it resembled the currents induced by Ano1 expression in HEK cells (Figure 7, compare B and G). Transcripts for Ano1, Ano6, Ano7, and Ano10 were expressed in colonic mucosa (Figure 8A). Western blots showed that HEK293 cells transfected with Ano1 had a faint band at the expected mass of 110 kDa and a larger, diffuse band representing glycosylated protein (Figure 8B). A similar diffuse band was observed in extracts from distal colon. Staining frozen sections with the Ano1 antibody showed intense staining in interstitial cells of Cajal, as previously reported by Gomez-Pinilla et al. (25), as well as in cells of the brush border membrane (Figure 8C).

Figure 7

Anion currents recorded from freshly isolated colonocytes and transfected HEK293 cells. (A–C) Sample traces from isolated colonocytes with less than 20 nM free [Ca²⁺]_i (A) or 1 μM [Ca²⁺]_i (B and C), showing different waveforms observed in different cells. (D) Current-voltage relationships for WT colonocytes with less than 20 nM free [Ca²⁺]_i as well as WT and Best2^–/– colonocytes with 1 μM free [Ca²⁺]_i. (E) Comparison of current-voltage relationships of outwardly rectifying currents as in B from WT and Best2^–/– mice with 1 μM free [Ca²⁺]_i. (F) Comparison of current-voltage relationships of linear currents as in C from WT and Best2^–/– mice with 1 μM free [Ca²⁺]_i. (G) Representative currents in HEK cells transfected with Ano1 cDNA with 1 μM free [Ca²⁺]_i. (H) Representative currents in HEK cells transfected with Best2 cDNA with 1 μM free [Ca²⁺]_i. (I) Permeability and conductance, relative to Cl, of Ano1 and Best2 currents.

Figure 8

Expression of anoctamins in colon. (A) RT-PCR of Ano1–Ano10 from mouse distal colonic epithelium. (B) Western blot of Ano1 expression in untransfected HEK cells, HEK cells transfected with Ano1 cDNA, distal colon, and salivary gland. (C) Confocal microscopy of Ano1 expression in colon. Brush border lumen is at the top. Asterisks mark the bottom of the crypt. Interstitial cells and the brush border are denoted by white and red arrows, respectively. Shown are Ano1 and phallodin alone as well as the overlay (left).

To determine whether Ano1 contributes to HCO₃^– permeability, we measured the relative HCO₃^– permeability and conductance of the Ano1 channel (Figure 7I). Ano1 had low permeability to HCO₃^– compared with Best2 (HCO₃^–/Cl^– ratio, 0.3 versus 0.7). These data support the conclusion that Ano1 is responsible for a Ca²⁺-activated Cl^– current in colon, whereas Best2 is responsible for a Ca²⁺-activated HCO₃^– current.

Phenotype of Best2^–/– mice

If Best2 plays a role in colon homeostasis, one would expect a phenotypic defect in colon function in the Best2^–/– mice. Best2^–/– mice, especially females, gained weight slightly less quickly than did WT mice with the same genetic background. The difference was small, but statistically significant by factorial ANOVA, for both males (P = 0.003; Figure 9A) and females (P < 0.001; Figure 9B). Histological examination revealed that colons from Best2^–/– mice exhibited an elevated level of inflammation, as indicated by the presence of eosinophils and neutrophils and a significantly elevated myeloperoxidase (MPO) level (Figure 9, D, E, and G). Otherwise, the gross appearance and histology of the colons from Best2^–/– mice, including the number of goblet cells as determined by lectin immunofluorescence, was not obviously different from that of WT mice.

Figure 9

Phenotype of Best2^–/– mice. (A and B) Body weights of male (A) and female (B) WT and Best2^–/– mice plotted versus age. (C–E) Hematoxylin and eosin–stained sections of WT (C) and Best2^–/– (D and E) colon. The circle in D indicates an area of inflammation characterized by many polymorphonuclear lymphocytes. Arrows in E denote lymphocytes (black) and an eosinophil (yellow). (F–I) Response to DSS treatment. (F) Body weights of WT and Best2^–/– mice given 3% DSS in their drinking water from day 1 to day 7 (n = 18 per group). (G) MPO activity in colon samples from WT and Best2^–/– mice before DSS treatment (control), at the end of 6 days of DSS treatment (DSS), and 18 days after DSS treatment was ended (recovery) (n = 6–10 per group). *P < 0.05. (H and I) Cells of WT and Best2^–/– distal colon, after 6 days of recovery from DSS, were stained with Best2 antibody (green) and PNA (red) to show unsialylated mucin. Scale bar: 20 μm. Images demonstrate hyperplasia of Best2-positive cells (H), whereas Best2^–/– mice had many fewer PNA-positive cells (I).

Because the effect of disruption of Best2 might not be evident in animals raised in the ideal, relatively aseptic conditions of the animal quarters, we induced experimental colitis by feeding the animals dextran sulfate sodium (DSS; ref. 26), and found that Best2^–/– mice were more sensitive to DSS treatment than were WT mice. Best2^–/– mice lost an average of 10.2% ± 3.4% of their body weights after treatment with DSS, whereas WT mice lost only 3.7% ± 1.2% (Figure 9F). At the end of the 6-day DSS treatment period, MPO was substantially elevated in both groups, although the responses of the 2 groups were not significantly different (Figure 9G). Best2^–/– mice recovered from DSS treatment less quickly than did WT mice: 5 days after DSS treatment, the Best2^–/– mice had not regained the body weight they had lost, whereas WT mice were approximately 5% above their starting weight (Figure 9F). Furthermore, at 18 days after DSS treatment was ended, MPO levels in WT mice had returned to control levels, whereas MPO levels in Best2^–/– mice remained 4.8-fold higher than the WT control level (Figure 9G).

Because there was such a large difference between groups in their recovery from DSS treatment, we examined the distribution of goblet cells 1 week after cessation of DSS treatment. In WT animals, there was tremendous hyperplasia of Best2-positive goblet cells (Figure 9H). In some sections, it appeared that nearly every cell in the crypt was positive for Best2. In colons prepared in parallel, control sections had less than 15 Best2-positive cells per crypt (range, 8–15 cells), whereas DSS-recovery sections had greater than 25 positive cells (range, 25–40 cells). In addition, many of the cells at the brush border surface were also Best2-positive (approximately 10 cells per 100-μm colon length), whereas in control colons, surface Best2-positive cells were seen infrequently (less than 1 cell per 100-μm colon length). Because we cannot use Best2 staining to compare WT and Best2^–/– goblet cell hyperplasia, we used peanut agglutinin (PNA), which recognizes the O-linked core galactosyl(β-1,3)N-acetylgalactosamine to label mucin. Virtually every Best2-positive cell in the WT colon recovering from DSS treatment also stained with PNA (Figure 9H). In contrast, colon from Best2^–/– mice recovering from DSS treatment exhibited little PNA staining (Figure 9I). These data clearly demonstrate that either mucin biogenesis or goblet cell differentiation is abnormal in Best2^–/– colon when the animal is subjected to stress.

These studies provide a number of insights. First, the function of bestrophins has been enigmatic since they were proposed to be Cl^– channels in 2002 (14, 16). For the first time to our knowledge, our results demonstrate a role of bestrophins in HCO₃^– transport and open a window into the physiology of this family of channels. Second, our results provide insights into the poorly understood ion transport properties of colonic goblet cells, which are of fundamental importance in colonic physiology. Finally, we provide perspective on the regulation of colonic anion transport by proposing what we believe to be a novel mechanism for the role of cholinergic agonists.

Hypothesis. The data presented here show that Best2 is expressed on the basolateral membrane of goblet cells and that disruption of Best2 causes a decrease in a CCh-activated HCO₃^–-dependent trans­epithelial current. Because Best2 is highly permeant to HCO₃^– when expressed heterologously in HEK cells (21), and HCO₃^–-dependent transport was reduced in the Best2^–/– mouse, we conclude that Best2 is a channel that mediates vectorial transepithelial secretion of HCO₃^–. However, we should point out that we have not measured HCO₃^– secretion directly. Given the fact that Best2 may have other regulatory functions (14), it is possible that the HCO₃^– dependence of the transepithelial current might be caused by an effect of HCO₃^– on some other function of Best2. Also, it is important to note that Best2 is not only found on the plasma membrane, but also in intracellular organelles (Figure 2). Best2 may, therefore, have intracellular functions. Recently, it has been reported that Best1 is an ER protein that regulates ER Ca²⁺ transport (27).

How could passive movement of HCO₃^– across the basolateral membrane of the goblet cell mediate transepithelial HCO₃^– transport? Our hypothesis is summarized in Figure 10B. In contrast to the classical view of ion transport in distal colon (Figure 10A), we propose that HCO₃^– moves passively across the basolateral membrane and is then transported into the colonic lumen by an apical Cl^–:HCO₃^– exchanger. Whether this is thermodynamically feasible depends upon some unknown variables, notably the potentials across the basolateral and apical membranes of goblet cells. However, we can calculate the range of membrane potentials that would permit such a mechanism to operate. We assume that serosal HCO₃^– is similar to plasma (approximately 25 mM). [HCO₃^–]_i levels have been experimentally determined to be 8–15 mM in colonocytes at normal arterial pCO₂ (28). If these values also apply to goblet cells, the Nernst equilibrium potential for HCO₃^– across the basolateral membrane would range from –30 mV at 8 mM [HCO₃^–]_i to –13 mV at 15 mM [HCO₃^–]_i. The transepithelial potential (TEP) of distal colon in our studies is typically –1 to –2 mV (apical negative relative to serosal; see also refs. 2, 12). This value is less than other epithelia, including the small intestine, partly because the colonic epithelium is more leaky; moreover, the high proportion of goblet cells in distal colon may contribute to the lower TEP. In any case, such a small TEP would dictate that the apical membrane potential must be close to the basolateral membrane potential. If secretion of HCO₃^– into the colonic lumen is powered by an apical Cl^–:HCO₃^– exchanger, the equilibrium luminal [HCO₃^–] concentration would be calculated as follows: ln([HCO₃]_i/[HCO₃]_o)^m = ln([Cl]_i/[Cl]_o)ⁿ + ([n × z_Cl] – [m × z_HCO3]) × FV_m/RT, in which n and m represent the stoichiometry of the Cl^–:HCO₃ exchanger, z is the valence (i.e., –1), V_m is the membrane potential, and F, R, and T have their usual thermodynamic meanings (29). With total [anion] of 160 mM, [HCO₃]_i of 10 mM, apical V_m of –25 mV, and [Cl]_i of 40 mM, the luminal [HCO₃^–] would be predicted to be 29–37 mM, depending on the Cl:HCO₃ stoichiometry of the exchanger (29). Thus, a basolateral HCO₃^– channel and an apical Cl:HCO₃ exchanger could theoretically drive secretion of significant amounts of HCO₃^–. HCO₃^– could be secreted even if the goblet cell basolateral membrane potential were more negative than –30 mV; however, a more negative membrane potential would result in an equilibrium [HCO₃^–]_i lower than 8 mM, which would likely produce an unphysiologically acidic intracellular pH. Whether these calculations reflect reality is limited by the little data available on the membrane properties of colonic goblet cells; we do not know what additional conductances are present in the apical and basolateral membranes.

Figure 10

Ion transport in distal colon. (A) Transporters and channels in colon. The distribution of channels and transporters was determined by immunofluorescence confocal microscopy. Secretion occurs in the crypt, and absorption occurs at the luminal brush border. Secretion is driven by transepithelial Cl^– transport that occurs by active basolateral uptake of Cl^– by the Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^– cotransporter NKCC1 (blue) and subsequent passive efflux via apical CFTR Cl^– channels (green). Cl^– transport is accompanied — paracellularly and possibly transcellularly — by H₂O and and Na⁺ (gray). Na⁺ and Cl^– are then reabsorbed at the brush border surface by coupled Na⁺-H⁺ exchange (by NHE3; orange) and Cl^–-HCO₃^– exchange (by SLC26A3; magenta) coupled to carbonic anhydrase (CA). Best2 (brown) is expressed basolaterally in goblet cells. Na⁺ is also reabsorbed by the ENaC (not shown). HCO₃^– is taken up by basolateral NBCe1 (pink), but apical mechanisms are not clear. (B) Interaction of goblet cells and enterocytes. Goblet cells (brown) are hypothesized to secrete HCO₃^– by transcellular transport involving Best2 in the basolateral membrane and a Cl:HCO₃^– transporter in the apical membrane (see Discussion). Enterocytes (blue) secrete Cl^– by transcellular transport involving basolateral NKCC1 and apical CFTR.

HCO₃^– is thought to be important in secretion of mucins, which play a key role in the innate immune system of the gut. Mucins are stored in intracellular granules in a compacted form with high concentrations of Ca²⁺ and protons (30) that screen the negative charges in the highly polyanionic mucins. When mucins are exocytosed, they rapidly expand in volume by 1,000-fold (31). This expansion is thought to be driven in part by electrostatic repulsion of negative charges that are unmasked during exocytosis. It has been suggested that HCO₃^– plays a critical role in unmasking these charges by raising the pH and sequestering Ca²⁺ (32).

Mechanisms of anion secretion in distal colon. Activation of CFTR, expressed in the apical membrane of enterocytes in the crypts (Figure 2E), is responsible for Cl^– secretion activated by agonists that elevate cAMP (5). Agonists that elevate [Ca²⁺]_i also stimulate anion secretion (e.g., refs. 6–8), but the mechanisms are unclear (3). Although it seems reasonable to suppose that Ca²⁺-stimulated Cl^– secretion is mediated by CaCCs, various evidence suggests that Ca²⁺ stimulates Cl^– secretion via CFTR.

Evidence supporting a role for CaCCs in Ca²⁺-stimulated secretion. We note 5 lines of evidence in support for this role. (a) CaCCs have been previously described in acutely isolated colonocytes (33) as well as a variety of colonic cell lines, including T84, Caco2, and HT29 (34). (b) Although knockout of CFTR abolishes cAMP-induced volume decrease of colonic crypt cells mediated by CFTR, knockout of CFTR has no effect on Ca²⁺-induced volume decrease mediated by 4,4′-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2′-disulfonic acid–sensitive CaCC channels (35). (c) Although knockout of CFTR abolishes Ca²⁺-activated Cl^– currents in many mouse strains, several inbred strains of mice have been described in which Ca²⁺-activated Cl^– secretion is present even though the CFTR gene has been disrupted. This suggests that CaCC channel expression might be strain specific (36–38). (d) A subset of human cystic fibrosis patients exhibit residual colonic Cl^– conductance that is likely mediated by CaCCs (39). (e) Rotavirus infection produces diarrhea by stimulating Ca²⁺-dependent Cl^– secretion from crypts (40), and the rotavirus toxin NSP4 induces Ca²⁺-mediated Cl^– secretion in both WT and CFTR-knockout crypts (41).

Evidence against a role for CaCCs. There are 3 lines of evidence that support the idea Ca²⁺ activates K_Ca3.1 channels that hyperpolarize the membrane and increase the driving force for anion secretion through CFTR (10–13). (a) It has been proposed that endogenous prostaglandin production stimulates adenylyl cyclase and that CFTR is partially activated under resting conditions. This idea is supported by the observation that suppression of prostaglandin production with indomethacin blocks CCh-stimulated I_sc (10, 11). However, we found here that indomethacin also blocked Best2. (b) The observation that the CCh-activated I_sc is potentiated by elevation of cAMP suggests a role for CFTR in Ca²⁺-stimulated Cl^– secretion (10). However, the synergistic interaction between Ca²⁺ and cAMP could occur at a site other than CFTR. For example, because cAMP activates Kv7.1 channels, the resulting hyperpolarization would be expected to increase the driving force for Cl^– efflux through CaCCs. (c) CCh-activated I_sc is abolished or reduced in many mouse models of cystic fibrosis (42, 43) and in human biopsies from CF patients (11, 44, 45); however, as noted above, other studies have obtained different results. The differences may be explained by changes that occur as a secondary consequence of disruption of the gene encoding CFTR. CFTR is known to regulate a variety of ion channels and transporters, including CaCCs (46), and there may simply be compensatory changes in expression of other channels, including Best2. Finally, the idea that membrane hyperpolarization is required for a cholinergic response is not universal: cholinergic agonists can stimulate anion secretion when the membrane potential is clamped at a depolarized level (6) and when K_Ca3.1 channels are blocked pharmacologically (9). Although species differences may explain some discrepancies, the mechanisms of cholinergic action in colon are clearly murky.

We suggest that the colon has 2 kinds of CaCC currents, one likely mediated by Best2 and physiologically carried by HCO₃^–, and another that may be mediated by an Ano1-encoded classical CaCC. Ca²⁺-stimulated Cl^– transport is likely to involve both CaCCs and CFTR, but the ratio of these pathways may be regulated.

Mechanisms of HCO₃ secretion in colon. The transport proteins involved in HCO₃^– secretion from distal colon have not been clearly delineated (1, 2). In other tissues, in which HCO₃^– secretion has been studied more thoroughly (29), HCO₃^– transport is mediated by coordinated basolateral Na:HCO₃^– transporters and apical Cl:HCO₃ exchangers. In the colon, the role of Na:HCO₃^– transporters is controversial (47, 48), and at least 3 different apical HCO₃^– efflux mechanisms have been identified (49). It remains unclear exactly which cells secrete HCO₃^– and how much of the HCO₃^– secretion occurs at the brush border and in the crypt. SLC26A3 is one of the Cl:HCO₃ exchangers in the apical membrane that mediates HCO₃^– secretion (50, 51). It has been proposed that CFTR-mediated HCO₃^– secretion is explained by direct effects of CFTR on SLC26A3 (52), but in the colon, SLC26A3 is located on the brush border membrane, whereas CFTR is expressed in the crypts (ref. 50 and H.C. Hartzell, unpublished observations). Thus, it seems unlikely that CFTR-mediated HCO₃^– secretion occurs by direct regulation of SLC26A3 in the colon. Another possibility is that CFTR stimulates HCO₃^– secretion indirectly by elevating extracellular Cl^– and thereby driving Cl-HCO₃ exchange in adjacent goblet cells.

Best2 is a colonic anion channel. A considerable body of evidence has established that bestrophins are a type of Ca²⁺-activated Cl^– channel (14). However, we showed here that Best2 did not function as a classical Ca²⁺-activated Cl^– channel, as was initially anticipated. Best1 is expressed on the brush border membrane of colonocytes in proximal colon and has been suggested to participate in Cl^– secretion (7, 8), but it remains to be seen whether Best2 and Best1 differ in their localization and function.

Our findings here complement a growing realization that bestrophins are unlikely to be the Xenopus oocyte variety of Ca²⁺-activated Cl^– channels (CaCCs), such as the ones present in salivary gland and pancreatic acinar cells (14, 17, 53). Differences between bestrophins and CaCCs include differences in their Ca²⁺ sensitivity, voltage dependence and kinetics, methods of regulation, and bicarbonate permeability (54). The first definitive evidence that bestrophins were not classical CaCCs was the finding that knockout of BEST1 in mice did not eliminate CaCC currents in retinal pigment epithelial cells in which Best1 is expressed (17, 55). These studies have led to the suggestion that bestrophins, in addition to functioning as Cl^– channels, may also have other regulatory functions, including regulation of voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels (14).

Speculation regarding disorders of ion transport in inflammatory bowel disease. Ion transport is disrupted in many inflammatory diseases in airway, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract (2, 56–58). It is tantalizing that the Best2 gene is located within a susceptibility locus for inflammatory bowel disease (i.e., IBD6; refs. 59–61). Our observations that Best2^–/– mice exhibited enhanced inflammation, slow recovery from DSS-induced colitis, and altered mucin biogenesis raise the possibility that Best2 may play a role in inflammatory bowel diseases.

The authors thank Didier Merlin for the use of his Ussing Chamber setup and helpful discussion, Asma Nusrat for advice on histological and pathological analysis, Qinghuan Xiao for comments on the manuscript, Anna Menini for Best2 antibody, the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation for CFTR (3G11) antibody, Nadia Nameen for CFTR antibody, and Uhtaek Oh for Ano1 cDNA. The authors’ work is supported by NIH grants GM60448 (to H.C. Hartzell), EY014852 (to H.C. Hartzell), and EY13160 (to A. Marmorstein); by an American Health Assistance Foundation grant (to A. Marmorstein); by an unrestricted grant to the Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Science at the University of Arizona (to A. Marmorstein); and by Emory University Core Grant for Vision Research P30 EY006360 (to H.C. Hartzell).

Address correspondence to: H. Criss Hartzell, Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, 615 Michael St., 535 Whitehead Building, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA. Phone: 404.242.5719; Fax: 404.727.6256; E-mail: Criss.Hartzell@emory.edu.

Conflict of interest: The authors have declared that no conflict of interest exists.

Citation for this article: J Clin Invest. 2010;120(5):1722–1735. doi:10.1172/JCI41129.

1. Heitzmann D, Warth R. Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium channels in gastrointestinal epithelia. Physiol Rev. 2008;88(3):1119–1182.
   View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
2. Kunzelmann K, Mall M. Electrolyte transport in the mammalian colon: mechanisms and implications for disease. Physiol Rev. 2002;82(1):245–289.
   View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
3. Barrett KE, Keely SJ. Chloride secretion by the intestinal epithelium: molecular basis and regulatory aspects. Annu Rev Physiol. 2000;62:535–572.
   View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
4. Musch MW, Arvans DL, Wu GD, Chang EB. Functional coupling of the downregulated in adenoma Cl–/base exchanger DRA and the apical Na+/H+ exchangers NHE2 and NHE3. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2009;296(2):G202–G210.
   View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
5. Greger R. Role of CFTR in the colon. Annu Rev Physiol. 2000;62:467–491.
   View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
6. Hennig B, Schultheiss G, Kunzelmann K, Diener M. Ca2+-induced Cl- efflux at rat distal colonic epithelium. J Membr Biol. 2008;221(2):61–72.
   View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
7. Kunzelmann K, Milenkovic VM, Spitzner M, Soria RB, Schreiber R. Calcium-dependent chloride conductance in epithelia: is there a contribution by Bestrophin? Pflugers Arch. 2007;454(6):879–889.
   View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
8. Barro Soria R, Spitzner M, Schreiber R, Kunzelmann K. Bestrophin 1 enables Ca²⁺ activated Cl^- conductance in epithelia. J Biol Chem. 2009;284(43):29405–29412.
   View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
9. Halm ST, Liao T, Halm DR. Distinct K+ conductive pathways are required for Cl– and K+ secretion across distal colonic epithelium. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2006;291(4): C636–C648.
   View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
10. Mall M, et al. Cholinergic ion secretion in human colon requires coactivation by cAMP. Am J Physiol. 1998;275(6 Pt 1):G1274–G1281.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
11. Mall M, et al. Defective cholinergic Cl(-) secretion and detection of K(+) secretion in rectal biopsies from cystic fibrosis patients. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2000;278(4):G617–G624.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
12. Flores CA, Melvin JE, Figueroa CD, Sepulveda FV. Abolition of Ca2+-mediated intestinal anion secretion and increased stool dehydration in mice lacking the intermediate conductance Ca2+-dependent K+ channel Kcnn4. J Physiol. 2007;583(Pt 2):705–717.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
13. Matos JE, Sausbier M, Beranek G, Sausbier U, Ruth P, Leipziger J. Role of cholinergic-activated KCa1.1 (BK), KCa3.1 (SK4) and KV7.1 (KCNQ1) channels in mouse colonic Cl- secretion. Acta Physiol (Oxf). 2007;189(3):251–258.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
14. Hartzell HC, Qu Z, Yu K, Xiao Q, Chien LT. Molecular Physiology of Bestrophins: Multifunctional membrane proteins linked to Best Disease and other retinopathies. Physiol Rev. 2008;88(2):639–672.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
15. Hartzell HC, Yu K, Xiao Q, Chien LT, Qu Z. Anoctamin/TMEM16 family members are Ca²⁺-activated Cl^- channels. J Physiol. 2009;587(Pt. 10):2127–2139.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
16. Duran C, Thompson CH, Xiao Q, Hartzell HC. Chloride Channels: Often enigmatic, rarely predictable. Annu Rev Physiol. 2010;72:95–121.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
17. Marmorstein AD, Cross HE, Peachey NS. Functional roles of bestrophins in ocular epithelia. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2009;28(1):206-226.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
18. Bakall B, et al. Bestrophin-2 is involved in the generation of intraocular pressure. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49(4):1563–1570.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
19. Specian RD, Neutra MR. Mechanism of rapid mucus secretion in goblet cells stimulated by acetylcholine. J Cell Biol. 1980;85(3):626–640.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
20. Specian RD, Oliver MG. Functional biology of intestinal goblet cells. Am J Physiol. 1991;260(2 Pt 1):C183–C193.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
21. Qu Z, Hartzell HC. Bestrophin Cl- channels are highly permeable to HCO3. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2008;294(6):C1371–C1377.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
22. Caputo A, et al. TMEM16A, a membrane protein associated with calcium-dependent chloride channel activity. Science. 2008;322(5901):590–594.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
23. Schroeder BC, Cheng T, Jan YN, Jan LY. Expression cloning of TMEM16A as a calcium-activated chloride channel subunit. Cell. 2008;134(6):1019–1029.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
24. Yang YD, et al. TMEM16A confers receptor-activated calcium-dependent chloride conductance. Nature. 2008;455(7217):1210–1215.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
25. Gomez–Pinilla PJ, et al. Ano1 is a selective marker of interstitial cells of Cajal in the human and mouse gastrointestinal tract. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2009;296(6):G1370–G1381.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
26. Okayasu I, Hatakeyama S, Yamada M, Ohkusa T, Inagaki Y, Nakaya R. A novel method in the induction of reliable experimental acute and chronic ulcerative colitis in mice. Gastroenterology. 1990;98(3):694–702.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
27. Barro-Soria R, Aldehni F, Almaca J, Witzgall R, Schreiber R, Kunzelmann K. ER-localized bestrophin 1 activates Ca(2+)-dependent ion channels TMEM16A and SK4 possibly by acting as a counterion channel. Pflugers Arch. 2010;459(3):485–497.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
28. Dagher PC, Chawla H, Michael J, Egnor RW, Charney AN. Modulation of chloride secretion in the rat ileum by intracellular bicarbonate. Comp Biochem Physiol A Physiol. 1997;117(1):89–97.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
29. Steward MC, Ishiguro H, Case RM. Mechanisms of bicarbonate secretion in the pancreatic duct. Annu Rev Physiol. 2005;67:377–409.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
30. Perez-Vilar J. Mucin granule intraluminal organization. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2007;36(2):183–190.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
31. Verdugo P, Deyrup-Olsen I, Aitken M, Villalon M, Johnson D. Molecular mechanism of mucin secretion: I. The role of intragranular charge shielding. J Dent Res. 1987;66(2):506–508.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
32. Garcia MA, Yang N, Quinton PM. Normal mouse intestinal mucus release requires cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator-dependent bicarbonate secretion. J Clin Invest. 2009;119(9):2613–2622.
    View this article via: JCI PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
33. Sahi J, Wiggins MP, Gibori GB, Layden TJ, Rao MC. Calcium regulated chloride permeabilities in primary cultures of rabbit colonocytes. J Cell Physiol. 1996;168(2):276–283.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
34. Arreola J, Melvin JE, Begenisich T. Differences in regulation of Ca 2+ -activated Cl - channels in colonic and parotid secretory cells. Am J Physiol. 1998;274(1 Pt 1):C161–C166.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
35. Valverde MA, O’Brien JA, Sepulveda FV, Ratcliff R, Evans MJ, Colledge WH. Inactivation of the murine cftr gene abolishes cAMP-mediated but not Ca(2+)-mediated secretagogue-induced volume decrease in small-intestinal crypts. Pflugers Arch. 1993;425(5–6):434–438.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
36. Toth B, et al. Very mild disease phenotype of congenic CftrTgH(neoim)Hgu cystic fibrosis mice. BMC Genet. 2008;9:28.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
37. Rozmahel R, et al. Modulation of disease severity in cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator deficient mice by a secondary genetic factor. Nature Genetics. 1996;12(3):280–287.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
38. Flores CA, Cid LP, Sepulveda FV. Strain-dependent differences in electrogenic secretion of electrolytes across mouse colon epithelium [published online ahead of print February 12, 2010]. Exp Physiol. doi:10.1113/expphysiol.2009.051102.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
39. Veeze HJ, Halley DJ, Bijman J, de Jongste JC, de Jonge HR, Sinaasappel M. Determinants of mild clinical symptoms in cystic fibrosis patients. Residual chloride secretion measured in rectal biopsies in relation to the genotype. J Clin Invest. 1994;93(2):461–466.
    View this article via: JCI PubMed Google Scholar
40. Lorrot M, Vasseur M. How do the rotavirus NSP4 and bacterial enterotoxins lead differently to diarrhea? Virol J. 2007;4:31.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
41. Morris AP, Scott JK, Ball JM, Zeng CQ, O’Neal WK, Estes MK. NSP4 elicits age–dependent diarrhea and Ca(2+)mediated I(–) influx into intestinal crypts of CF mice. Am J Physiol. 1999;277(2 Pt 1):G431–G444.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
42. Cuthbert AW, MacVinish LJ, Hickman ME, Ratcliff R, Colledge WH, Evans MJ. Ion-transporting activity in the murine colonic epithelium of normal animals and animals with cystic fibrosis. Pflugers Arch. 1994;428(5–6):508–515.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
43. Bleich EM, Leonhard-Marek S, Beyerbach M, Breves G. Characterisation of chloride currents across the proximal colon in CftrTgH(neoim)1Hgu congenic mice. J Comp Physiol B. 2007;177(1):61–73.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
44. Hardcastle J, Hardcastle PT, Taylor CJ, Goldhill J. Failure of cholinergic stimulation to induce a secretory response from the rectal mucosa in cystic fibrosis. Gut. 1991;32(9):1035–1039.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
45. Berschneider HM, et al. Altered intestinal chloride transport in cystic fibrosis. FASEB Journal. 1988;2(10):2625–2629.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
46. Kunzelmann K, et al. The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator attenuates the endogenous Ca2+ activated Cl- conductance of Xenopus oocytes. Pflugers Arch. 1997;435(1):178–181.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
47. Gawenis LR, et al. Colonic anion secretory defects and metabolic acidosis in mice lacking the NBC1 Na+/HCO3- cotransporter. J Biol Chem. 2007;282(12):9042–9052.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
48. Seidler U, Bachmann O, Jacob P, Christiani S, Blumenstein I, Rossmann H. Na+/HCO3- cotransport in normal and cystic fibrosis intestine. JOP. 2001;2(4 Suppl):247–256.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
49. Binder HJ, Rajendran V, Sadasivan V, Geibel JP. Bicarbonate secretion: a neglected aspect of colonic ion transport. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2005;39(4 Suppl 2):S53–S58.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
50. Schweinfest CW, et al. slc26a3 (dra)-deficient mice display chloride-losing diarrhea, enhanced colonic proliferation, and distinct up-regulation of ion transporters in the colon. J Biol Chem. 2006;281(49):37962–37971.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
51. Walker NM, et al. Role of down-regulated in adenoma anion exchanger in HCO3- secretion across murine duodenum. Gastroenterology. 2009;136(3):893–901.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
52. Shcheynikov N, et al. The Slc26a4 transporter functions as an electroneutral Cl-/I. J Physiol. 2008;586(16):3813–3824.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
53. Romanenko VG, et al. Tmem16A encodes the Ca2+-activated Cl- channel in mouse submandibular salivary gland acinar cells [published online ahead of print February 22, 2010]. J Biol Chem. doi:10.1074/jbc.M109.068544.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
54. Hartzell HC. CaCl-ing channels get the last laugh. Science. 2008;322(5901):534–535.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
55. Marmorstein LY, et al. The light peak of the electroretinogram is dependent on voltage-gated calcium channels and antagonized by bestrophin (Best-1). J Gen Physiol. 2006;127(5):577–589.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
56. Eisenhut M. Changes in ion transport in inflammatory disease. J Inflamm (Lond). 2006;3:5.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
57. Sullivan S, et al. Downregulation of sodium transporters and NHERF proteins in IBD patients and mouse colitis models: Potential contributors to IBD-associated diarrhea. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2008;15(2):261–274.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
58. Hirota CL, McKay DM. Loss of Ca-mediated ion transport during colitis correlates with reduced ion transport responses to a Ca-activated K channel opener. Br J Pharmacol. 2009;156(7):1085–1097.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
59. Rioux JD, et al. Genomewide search in Canadian families with inflammatory bowel disease reveals two novel susceptibility loci. Am J Hum Genet. 2000;66(6):1863–1870.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
60. Williams CN, Kocher K, Lander ES, Daly MJ, Rioux JD. Using a genome-wide scan and meta-analysis to identify a novel IBD locus and confirm previously identified IBD loci. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2002;8(6):375–381.
    View this article via: PubMed Google Scholar
61. van Heel DA, Fisher SA, Kirby A, Daly MJ, Rioux JD, Lewis CM. Inflammatory bowel disease susceptibility loci defined by genome scan meta-analysis of 1952 affected relative pairs. Hum Mol Genet. 2004;13(7):763–770.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar
62. Lujan R, Nusser Z, Roberts JD, Shigemoto R, Somogyi P. Perisynaptic location of metabotropic glutamate receptors mGluR1 and mGluR5 on dendrites and dendritic spines in the rat hippocampus. Eur J Neurosci. 1996;8(7):1488–1500.
    View this article via: PubMed CrossRef Google Scholar