Addiction to alcohol or nicotine involves altered functioning of the brain's motivational
systems. Altered functioning of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA) axis may
hold clues to the nature of the motivational changes accompanying addiction and
vulnerability to addiction. Alcohol and nicotine show at least three forms of interaction with
HPA functioning. Acute intake of both substances causes stress-like cortisol responses.
Their persistent use may dysregulate the HPA. Finally, the risk for dependence and for …