Nerves are emerging regulators of cancer progression. Cancer cells induce the outgrowth of nerves in the tumor microenvironment through the release of neurotrophic factors, and in return nerves liberate neurotransmitters that activate cancer growth and dissemination. Although sympathetic nerves drive tumor angiogenesis via the liberation of noradrenaline, sensory and parasympathetic nerves stimulate cancer stem cells. Interestingly, recent evidence indicates that parasympathetic nerves can eventually inhibit tumor progression, suggesting a yin–yang type of regulation of cancer by nerves. From a broader perspective, the question of a higher level of control of cancer development by the central nervous system should be raised.

Nerves are emerging regulators of cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis. Here, we review the evidence to date and explore the basic and clinical ramifications of these findings.