Ca²⁺ is a ubiquitous intracellular messenger responsible for controlling numerous cellular processes including fertilization, mitosis, neuronal transmission, contraction and relaxation of muscles, gene transcription, and cell death. At rest, the cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ concentration [Ca²⁺]_i is approximately 100 nM, but this level rises to 500–1,000 nM upon activation. In osteoblasts, the elevation of [Ca²⁺]_i is a result of an increase in the release of Ca²⁺ from endoplasmic reticulum and/or extracellular Ca²⁺ influx through voltage gated Ca²⁺ channels. Many of the cellular effects of Ca²⁺ are mediated by the Ca²⁺ binding protein, calmodulin (CaM). Upon binding up to four calcium ions, CaM undergoes a conformational change, which enables it to bind to specific proteins eliciting a specific response. Calmodulin kinase II (CaMKII) is a major target of the Ca²⁺/CaM second messenger system. Once bound to Ca²⁺/CaM, the multimeric CaMKII is released from its autoinhibitory status and maximally activated, which then leads to an intraholoenzyme autophosphorylation reaction. Calcineurin (Cn) is another major target protein that is activated by Ca²⁺/CaM. Cn is a serine‐threonine phosphatase that consists of a heterodimeric protein complex composed of a catalytic subunit (CnA) and a regulatory subunit (CnB). Upon activation, Cn directly binds to, and dephosphorylates nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) transcription factors within the cytoplasm allowing them to translocate to the nucleus and participate in the regulation of gene expression. This review will examine the potential mechanisms by which calcium, CaM, CaMKII, and Cn/NFAT control osteoblast proliferation and differentiation. J. Cell. Biochem. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.